LEGAL PROHIBITION OF ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION IN THE US - 6325 Words

LEGAL PROHIBITION OF ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION IN THE US (Essay Sample) Content: Legal Prohibition of Alcohol Consumption in the US Name: Course Title: Institution: Date: The history of laws undertaken over alcoholic drinks in the US becomes determined by the social and economic factors that prevail in the country. The formulation of the laws concerning alcoholic drinks in the US can mainly become embodied in four major occurrences that brought significant change to the enactment of alcoholic laws in the US. These three major happenings in the American society include Whiskey Rebellion, Temperance Movement, Eighteenth Amendment and the Repeal Prohibition. The Whiskey Rebellion occurred in 1794 where a faction of farmers in Western Pennsylvania rose up in arms to oppose the proposed federal regulations that sought to impose excise duties on the distilled spirits of the United States (Smith, 2013). The government gave out the reason for imposing the excise duties as an approach to meeting the soaring national debt. The federal regulations would become implemented based on the capacity of the individual distillers in the US. In this era, Whiskey got rega rded as a high-value spirit given that the locals would use it for a myriad of domestic functions including cooking and social occasions (Smith, 2013). The rising rebellion on the taxes imposed forced President George Washington, to deploy troops for the purpose of quelling the heightened resistance from the American farmers and locals. It was the Whiskey Rebellion that gave rise to the inclusion of Treason into the American Jurisprudence. The treason charge got included after two individuals got found to be guilty of treason in the rebellion. The Temperance Movement, on the other hand, became spearheaded by the religious leaders in the early Nineteenth Century who sought to encourage abstinence from the drinking of alcohol in the American Society (Smith, 2013). The religious leaders crusaded that the partaking of alcohol was a sin against God and that the individuals who drank alcohol reduced their faith unto the religion. The majority of the activists promoting the temperance mov ement argued that alcohol was responsible for the many family breakups and the overall disharmony and disunity in the society during those periods. The temperance movement accomplished the condition of prohibition in around 12 states of the US; however, after 1868, the majority of the states abandoned the prohibition. The temperance movement, consequently, managed to instill some regulations concerning the uptake of alcohol amongst the American society. The other major historical aspect of the alcohol laws in the US was the passing of the Eighteenth Amendment to the US Constitution in 1919 (Behr, 1996). The Eighteenth Amendment stipulated that the sale, manufacture, importation and exportation of the alcoholic liquor within the US became prohibited by the constitution. The ratification of the Eighteenth Amendment became enforced by the US Congress, who could ensure that all the States abide by the regulation. The prohibition achieved through the enactment of the Eighteenth Amendment became effective in the reduction of alcohol consumption within the US (Behr, 1996). Many reports stated that the uptake of alcohol and alcoholic substances in the US had decreased substantially leading to the moral uprightness of the society. Despite the passing of the prohibition law, the demand for alcohol amongst some of the Americans did not end, as such, the majority of the people decided to break the laws and find their way into the possession of some illicit alcohol that got smuggled or manufactured secretly within the US. As time went on, the majority of the people complained about the fact that the police interfered with personal privacy in their efforts to uncover the sale of illicit alcohol within the major States of the US (Behr, 1996). There were also reports that the law enforcement agents would collude with the manufacturers of illicit alcohol by sharing the profits accrued and allowing them to conduct business in the US. As such, the government was losing huge amou nts of revenue through tax evasions that ensued from the illegal manufacturing and smuggling of alcohol in the US.[Andrew F. Smith, Drinking history: fifteen turning points in the making of American beverages (2013).] [Edward Behr, Prohibition: thirteen years that changed America (1996).] There were also growing concerns about the fact that prohibition had undermined the liberties of all the Americans by enforcing oppressive regulations that denied the rightful Americans to enjoy their hard-fought freedom. In the 1930's, the majority of the leaders had a mutual thought of the inclusion of the alcohol industry that could provide good returns so as to ameliorate the depressed economy of the US in this era. The alcoholic industry was also viewed to become a proper source of jobs for the majority of the unemployed Americans in this period. These factors gave rise to the increased campaigns by the people on the repeal of the prohibition against alcohol in the US. In 1933, the majority of the States supported the Twenty-First Amendment that pushed for the repeal of the prohibition of alcohol in the US. The ratification process of the Twenty-First Amendment became completed on December 5, 1933, during when its adoption became accepted in the US. The repeal of the prohibition , however, became subject to the fact that all the States would educate their people on the need to have restraint upon the excess consumption of alcohol so as to reduce the effects of alcohol abuse in the nation. In the post-prohibition period, the majority of the States in the US passed regulations, which stipulated that alcohol should not become sold or consumed by the people less than 21 years of age. The effectiveness of this regulation is, consequently, questionable given the current rise in the consumption of alcohol among the US minors (Jacobs, 1989). In 2001, the national highways traffic safety administration (NHTSA) estimated that 41 percent of the fatal highway crashes in the US was as a result of alcohol consumption amongst the drivers. The situation provides the state of the US alcohol consumption in the post-prohibition era given the present laws and regulations enacted to control the intake of alcohol. The minimum legal drinking age (MLDA) in the US is 21 years. The age threshold became enacted as per the Twenty-First Amendment to become adopted at a national level in the US. The adoption of the MLDA in the US became construed on the increased road fatalities caused by the increased consumption of alcohol amongst the minors (Jacobs, 1989). Studies demonstrated that road fatalities caused by alcohol abuse were the leading cause of deaths amongst the youths aged between 15 years and 24 years. The MLDA of the US has, however, received applause and critique from the majority of researchers that find it unique given that the majority of the countries in the world have their MLDA pegged for 18 years. The effect of the high MLDA in the US on alcoholic drinks is that the majority of the youths would engage in partaking alcohol secretly and privately to hide any publicity. The private intake of alcohol, however, leads to a situation where the youths would abuse the substance because of the increased restrictions (Griggs, 2015). There have been numerous pros and cons formulated regarding the imposition of the 21 years MLDA in the US. Firstly, the proponents of the US MLDA argue that the provision of alcohol to youths below the age of 21 years would result in related medical problems to the youths at an early age. The medical rationality becomes found upon the fact that alcohol intake in youths less than 21 years would result in reduced brain development, memory loss, and poor decision-making amongst the American youths (Alcoholism: Clinical Experimental Research, 2013). Secondly, the proponents of the US MLDA also use the proposition that early drinking amongst the youths would increase the level of traffic fatalities resulting from drunk driving amongst the youths. The NHTSA is one of the proponents of the MLDA in the US because of increased highway crashes (Cochran, 1994). Thirdly, the people favoring the current US MLDA argue that the provision of alcohol to youths less than 21 years would allow young people to attend unsafe en vironments that include nightclubs and bars. The exposure to these environments gets viewed to become a source of moral decadence among the US youths. Fourthly, proponents of the stipulated US MLDA propose that the right to drink must become put at a higher age based on the dangers created by alcohol consumption.[James B. Jacobs, Drunk driving: an American dilemma (1989).] [Brandon Griggs, Should the U.S. lower its drinking age? CNN (2015), http://edition.cnn.com/2014/07/16/us/legal-drinking-age/ (last visited Feb 29, 2016).] [Alcoholism: Clinical Experimental Research, Lower drinking ages can have an impact on later drinking patterns. ScienceDaily (2013), /releases/2013/01/130122162232.htm (last visited Mar 2, 2016).] [Robert F Cochran, 'Good Whiskey,' Drunk Driving, and Innocent Bystanders: The Responsibility of Manufacturers of Alcohol and Other Dangerous Hedonic Products for Bystander Injury. South Carolina Law Review, 45 (1994).] These proponents emphasize that just like the US President's age gets limited to 35 years or above, there should be a higher minimum age for the right to drink alcohol in the country. Lastly, the supporters of the US MLDA also point out that higher minimum drinking ages promote the reduced consumption of alcohol in the country given that people start to drink at a higher age when they are mature and have restraint o the consumption of drugs. The cons of the US MLDA are also quite many because of the increased dissatisfaction with the high age required for alcohol consumption in the country. Firstly, the ...

Pygmalion and An Exploration of the Ethics of Science - Free Essay Example

Nathaniel Hawthorne, one of the most brilliant writers of the American Renaissance, spun tales of human trials and failures that fascinate scholars, writers, and students while questioning transcendentalist beliefs through extraordinary prose. American Romanticism emphasized introspection and self-awareness, engaging with nature, and individuality, free from the conformity of past Puritan influence (Dincer 219). Dark Romanticism evolved as a subgenre of Romanticism, featuring themes such as science vs. nature, where individuals attempt to make changes to theirs and the lives of others but fail in their pursuits (Dincer 220). In Hawthornes short story, The Birthmark, he debates the Romantic theme science is better than nature through symbolism and conflict between a Pygmalion protagonist, who believes science is perfection, and his antagonist wife, who argues the ethics of Science. American Transcendentalists argued for self-reliance, reflecting a new philosophical idea of introspection that circulated Europe, beginning in Germany. Introspection is a technique aimed at looking inside oneself to find truth rather than outside sources. Transcendentalists sensed a new era had arrived and were critics of their contemporary society for not conforming to new ideas and ridding themselves of past Puritan beliefs. When writing Nature, Emerson presented the thought that God did not create humans separate from nature as did previous teachings. The foregoing generations beheld God and nature face to face; we through their eyes (Emerson 214). This line of philosophical thought is a seed from which Hawthorne could grow the nature is better than science argument. Combining arguments from Emerson and other Transcendentalists and the progress science was making with the dark romanticism elements of horror, death, evil as spiritual truth, and terror brings the conflicts between Aylmer and Georgiana to light in the science vs. nature theme. Hawthorne had had a great deal of exposure to the doctrines of the New England transcendentalists, who may have been responsible for Aylmers metaphysical dualism and, more particularly, his radical idealism (Rucker 447). The literary anti-transcendentalism movement to which Hawthornes role was significant, penned creative stories about sinful, bitter, evil characters who destroy human spirit without concern for morality. Authors of the anti-transcendentalism movement considered the uncertainty of man and his remorse for having sinned in their morbid, raw use of symbolism in their dark, macabre fiction that captivated audiences (Anderson and Lentini). Hawthorne, a writer of the rapidly emerging Dark Romance genre, wrote tales revolving around the human nature characteristics of guilt, cruelty, crime, and self-destruction all on display in The Birth-Mark (Anderson and Lentini).  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Pygmalion was a perfectionist sculptor who was obsessed with creating a sculpture of the perfect woman. He obsessed over the beauty he could create and fell in love with his creation. Pygmalion, according to David Kierseys four temperament types, was a Rational who believed nature could not compete with knowledge (McKenna). His rational characteristics drove him to perfection with no regard for the consequences. He would sacrifice everything to achieve his masterpiece, just like Aylmer. Georgiana, an Idealist on the temperate types, is an opposite to Aylmers personality and seems the perfect spouse, and she has a flaw for her husbands Pygmalion rationalist personality to thrive upon. Georgianas idealizing of Aylmer makes him more fallible, blinding her to the dangers he posed to her well-being. Joined together, the couple forms a Pygmalion marriage, a temporary symbiosis that finally degenerates into vampirism (Zanger 366). Aylmers marrying Georgiana, who is as close to perfection as possible in nature, pleases him, but his sudden attraction to the mark on her face, and the thought that he cannot love her while she bears the mark, seals their fate. In The Birth-Mark, Aylmer has everything going for him. He is a scientist who has recently married Georgiana, whose beauty was the envy of many suitors. Being the main character story means Aylmer must have a mission, a flaw to drive the plot. Aylmers idle hands transform him from a loving husband to an arrogant, mad-scientist, who examples the Dark Romance theme of science is better than Nature. In the view of dark romantics, human nature is not inherently good, which means anyone is capable of doing bad things (Caffrey). Georgiana, as Aylmer describes her, came so nearly perfect from the hand of Nature (Hawthorne 419). Her single flaw that kept her from being perfect was a birthmark on her left cheek, a crimson stain upon the snow (Hawthorne 419). To some f olks the hand-shaped birthmark was a hideous thing while others would have risked life for the privilege of pressing lips to the mysterious hand (Hawthorne 419). In Aylmers eyes the birth-mark symbolizes Natures imperfection, but since he believes science is better than Nature, he can remove it and create the perfect woman. Georgianas birthmark becomes the showcase debate of science vs. nature when, Aylmer, becomes like Pygmalion. In his youth, Aylmer immersed himself in philosophy, religion, physical science and physiology, culminating in an understand of how nature created its masterpiece man. As Aylmers Pygmalion-like personality emerged, with it he formulated a notion that he could improve this masterpiece. A Pygmalion Project is an attempt to sculpt another person into an improved version which the sculptor thinks is more suitable (McKenna 36). Georgiana, said he, It never occurred to you that the mark upon your cheek might be removed? To tell you the truth, it has been so often called a charm, that I was simple enough to imagine it might be so. Ah, up on another face, perhaps it might, replied her husband. But never on yours! No, deares t Georgiana, you came so nearly perfect from the hand of Nature, that this slightest possible defect which we hesitate whether to determine a defect or a beauty† shocks me, as being the visible mark of earthly imperfection (Hawthorne 419). This passage, near the beginning of the story, sets up the dark romanticism theme of science versus nature by demonstrating what Georgianas birthmark symbolizes to Aylmer and herself. Georgiana believes the mark was placed on her cheek by a fairy upon her birth. This minor conflict reveals much of the different personalities and views on science and nature. Georgiana displays a carefree spirit by describing herself as simple enough (Hawthorne 419), meaning free spirit enough to be complacent with the charm on her cheek. Aylmer shows his Pygmalion arrogance by questioning if Georgiana has considered attempting to remove the mark. According to Marshal, the birthmark symbolizes the power of Georgianas natural desires, and Aylmer projects his panic on the birthmark, thus creating an excuse to return to his laboratory, where he feels secure and in control (Marshal 37-38). Selecting it as the symbol of his wifes liability to sin, sorrow, decay, and death, Aylmers somber imagination was not long in rendering the birthmark a frightful object, causing him more trouble and horror than ever Georgianas beauty, whether of soul or sense, had given him delight (Hawthorne 420). This passage describes Aylmers self-induced inner conflict and sheds light on hi s psychological state. Aylmers uncanny reaction and rising fear of the birthmark causes a realization that their love will never be the same while Georgiana bears the mark. Aylmers internal conflict relates to the dark romanticism theme of science versus nature in which his faith in science drives him to believe he must remove the mark and restore her perfection to look upon her face as he once had. Even Pygmalion, when his sculptured woman assumed life, felt not greater ecstasy than mine will be (Hawthorne 421). Seeing her otherwise so perfect, he found this one defect grow more and more intolerable, with every moment of their united lives (Hawthorne 419). Aylmers obsession with the mark and lack of concern for his wifes feelings seems as though he married the mark rather than Georgiana. The mark is given so much attention by Aylmer that it has a life of its own with a personality created to taunt him. His dream of cutting out the birth-mark drove Aylmers need for a perfect creation even if her life was the cost (Herndon). To balance the tension in the story, Hawthorne gives the reader Aminidab, a Biblical name representing the leader of a noble nation (Walsh). Aylmer looked down to his assistant, describing him as being a lesser, flawed machine with little intelligence, but of the three, he is the voice of reason ignored. Aminidab sees the perfection of the birth-mark as much of society has and eludes to Aylmers overzealousness by stating, if she were my wife, Id never part with that birth-mark (Hawthorne 422). Aminidabs statement and the tone with which it is spoken, suggests he loves Georgiana, a woman who would not consider a man of his status for a marriage partner. Aylmer attempts to relieve the tension between he and his wife by transforming one of his laboratory rooms into a comfortable, brightly decorated room for Georgiana to rest. He successfully distracts her from the dangerous procedure they were about to perform by demonstrating his abilities on a flower which, like his many failures before, turned to ash below her touch, symbolizing her death. Aylmers failed attempt at creating a photograph also foreshadows the failure of removing the mark. Tension resurfaces with Georgianas disapproval of Aylmers admission he has created a potion that can extend a persons life or kill them instantly, but he is keeping the world safe by not exposing his secret. Georgiana is skeptical of Aylmers ability to use science to rid her of the birthmark and make her more beautiful. Georgiana, as she re ad, reverenced Aylmer and loved him more profoundly than ever, but with a less entire dependence on his judgment than heretofore. Much as he had accomplished, she could not but observe that his most splendid successes were almost invariably failures, if compared with the ideal at which he aimed (Hawthorne 426). This passage brings conflict between Georgiana and Aylmer without a spoken word. Hawthornes opening lines elude to Aylmer being a better philosopher than scientist, leading the reader to believe he quite possibly only thinks he achieved success. The evidence of Aylmers failures reveals her husbands imperfections and made him more human, producing a deeper affection for him, but causes her to question the procedure. The book symbolizes the failures in science to which Aylmer has turned a blind eye. The discoveries Georgiana makes of his failures and her reaction to them foreshadows her death. So deeply did these reflections affect Georgiana that she laid her face upon the open volume and burst into tears (Hawthorne 426).  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Georgiana confronts Aylmer while observing his nervousness while preparing the procedure, telling him his conscience will bear the suffering more than she if he fails for, for my share in it is far less than your own (Hawthorne 427). Her willingness to drink whatever poison he created to make him happy in their marriage was countered by Aylmers confession that he had administered the cure and failed, leaving only one last option to save their marriage.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Aylmers Pygmalion personality arose when he again demonstrated his potions potency on an ill plant that upon receiving its curing properties, stood anew before Georgianas eyes, her faith in him also renewed. To ease tension, Hawthorne gives the dark romance a comedic turn as she asks for the potion and Almer again appears as her savior, resembling a comic book hero with a Shakespearian voice, saying Drink, then, thou lofty creature! (Hawthorne 428). Like a Shakespearian tragedy, Aylmer did succeed in removing the stain from her cheek, but Georgianas death meant in the end, science was not better than nature and he fell victim to the dark Romantic theme of the scientist who failed in their pursuit. He heard Natures last laugh, for he had rejected the best that earth could offer (Hawthorne 429).