Complexes Of Cobalt In Different Metal Oxidation State Biology Essay

Complexes Of Cobalt In Different Metal Oxidation State Biology Essay Cobalt forms a complex since it has an empty valence shell orbital thus it is an electron pair acceptor. It can donate electrons from the ligands thus forming a coordination compound. Cobalt usually exists in two oxidation stable states usually the +2 and +3 and can also be in the form of a tetrahedral arragement and octahedral in the case of the Cobalt(II) oxidation state . Co(III) oxidation state can only form an octahedral arragement. Co(II) is one of the transition metals which can form tetrahedral complexes more easily . The energy levels of octahedral and tetrahedral of Co(II) have the least difference in energy.The magnetic moments of tetrahedral ranges from 3.89 to 4.7BM and that of octahedral complexes ranges from 4.7 to 5.2BM Co(III) oxidation state is not very favourable, this is because when it reacts with water it would quickly go back to the +2 oxidation state. When reacting with ammonia, cobalt(III) is more stable. The Co(III) can show also isomerism. Co(III) is expected to be paramagnetic but the cross over from high spin to low spin takes place at very long ligand field strengths and therefore it is more likely to be diamagnetic. Cobalt(III) complexes are described as kinetically inert and undergo ligand exchange very slowly. On the other hand cobalt(II) undergoes ligand exchange faster since it is liable.1 In this experiment ligand exchange is going to take place such that the ammonia molecule which is a stronger ligand replaces the water molecules in the cobalt(II) chloride hexahydrate. In the second experiment the coordination around cobalt is changing from an octahedral to a tetrahedral complex. The different colours of these transition metals are caused by the excitation of the d electron to another d subshell. The 3d orbitals split in eg and t2g. This splitting enables the electron to excite from ground state to excited state. The size of energy gap of the excitation corresponds to the wavelength of the absorbance in the visible region of the spectra. Apparatus: Pasteur pipette, weighing boat, spatula, watch glass, measuring cyclinder, stirring rod, buchner funnel, stopper, heating mantle, weighing balance, beakers, thermometer, filter paper, ice-salt bath, flasks Chemicals Chemical Grade Brand Cobalt(II) chloride hexahydrate GPR N/A Ammonium chloride GPR BDH Hydrogen peroxide GPR BDH Ammonia GPR Timstor Hydrochloric acid GPR BDH Charcoal GPR N/A Acetone GPR BDH Pyridine GPR N/A Ethanol GPR BDH Method: Experiment A: Preparation of Hexamminecobalt(III) Chloride 6g of ammonium chlorideand 9g of cobalt(II) chloride hexahydrate were dissolved in 13cm3 boiling water and 0.5g of decolourising charcoal was added carefully. The mixture was cooled to 0OC in an ice-bath and 20cm3 of ammonia was added, while keeping the temperature below 10OC. 18cm3 of hydrogen peroxide was added while the solution was being stirred rapidly and the temperature was kept below 20OC. When all the hydrogen peroxide was added, the mixture was heated to 60 OC until the pink colour disappeared. The mixture was cooled in ice and the precipitate was collected by filtration on a Buchner funnel. The precipitate was dissolved in a boiling mixture of 80cm3 of water and 3cm3 of concentrated hydrochloric acid. The charcoal was removed by filtration while it was still hot. 10cm3 of concentrated hydrochloric acid was added to the filtrate and the mixture was cooled in ice when crystals of hexamminecobalt(II) chloride were deposited. The crystalline product was collected on a Buchner funnel, then it was washed with acetone and dried in a vacuum dessicator. The yield was measured and the product was kept for inspection. Experiment B: Preparation of dichlorodipyridinocobalt 1.2g of cobalt(II) chloride was dissolved in 6cm3 of hot absolute ethanol. 1cm3 of hot solution of pyridine in 3cm3 of absolute alcohol was added slowly to the solution.This was carried in a fume cupboard. The solution was allowed to stand at room temperature for 15minutes and the product was collected by filtration on a Buchner funnel. The crystals were washed quickly with ice-cold absolute ethanol and the product was dried in a vacuum dessicator. The yield was recorded and the product was kept for inspection. Results: Experiment A: Mass of ammonium chloride=5.850g Mass of cobalt chloride=8.960g Mass of crystals of hexamminecobalt chloride=4.787g Experiment B: Mass of cobalt(II) chloride=1.204g Mass of crystals of dichlorodipyridinocobalt=0.000g Calculation: Moles of NH4Cl= 5.985 =0.112moles 53.49 (RMM) Moles of cobalt chloride= 8.960g= 0.038moles 237.9(RMM) Moles of Hydrogen peroxide= 6% of Hydrogen peroxide=20volumes 6 x 18= 1.08g 100 1.08g= 0.032moles 34(RMM) 1 CoCl2.6H2O:2H2O2 0.038 : 0.076 Therefore: CoCl2.6H2O is the limiting reagent 1:1 CoCl2.6H2O:[Co(H2O)6]Cl3 1 mole=267.3g 0.038 moles=? 10.16g % yield= actual yield x100% Theoritical yield 4.787gx100%=47.27% (percentage yield of hexamminecobalt(III) chloride) 10.16g Precautions: The vacuum at the flask was disconnected before turning off the water aspirator. This prevents water from being sucked into the vacuum flask. The suction of the vacuum filtration was checked so that filtration would be a success. It was made sure that the crystals would not remain on the sides of the funnel since a low result would be obtained. Prevention of excessive cooling during filtration was by suction through a flat piece of filter paper properly fitting a Buchner funnel. The solution was cooled to room temperature and sometimes even colder with the aid of an ice-water bath. Filtration was done using the Buchner funnel to increase the speed of filtration A heating mantle was used instead of a bunsen burner because ethanol is flammable. The hydrogen peroxide,ammonia, pyridine and absolute ethanol were quite dangerous and so they were performed in the fumehood. The crystals that remained in the beaker were not rinsed by distilled water since some of the product would dissolve. The solvent had to be cooled before washing the crystals since crystals could dissolve. Sources of error: Transfer errors when collecting the crystals formed by suction filtraton, since some of them would remain with the filter paper. Some of the substance was left with the glass rod during stirring which would cause loss of the product. The mixture was contaminated and so the yields were not sufficiently pure. Side reactions could have occurred beside the actual reaction which can lead to the generation of other products. Error in the apparatus especially the weighing balance. Discussion: Experiment A: Preparation of Hexamminecobalt(III) chloride When ammonium chloride is added to the cobalt(II) hexahydrate, it has a function to stabilize the ion.2 When dissolved in water the cobalt(II) chloride salt decomposes, resulting in the formation of the Co(H2O)62+ ion. Cobalt(II) can be oxidized by air oxidation to cobalt(III).5 When adding the ammonia solution the hexaammine complex is formed: [Co(H2O)6]2+ +NH3 → [Co(NH3)6]2+ + 6 H2O Ammonia is added to the solution to aid in this oxidation process. When adding ammonia the reaction would be exothermic and so the mixture is placed in a salt-bath to keep the mixture cooled. Hydrogen peroxide is used as an oxidizing agent thus oxidizing the Cobalt(II) to Cobalt(III). The decolourising charcoal is used as the catalyst of the reaction to give high yields in a relatively short time. The activated charcoal increases the speed of the reaction by helping in the formation of the bonds between NH3 and conveniently, it also catalyzes the transformation of Co2+ into Co3+ by the hydrogen peroxide. Thus it is used to increase the reaction of the ligand exchange. 2 The charcoal is made from finely divided carbon sheets which provide a large surface area. The holes on the surface of the charcoal are used to allow the reaction of the ligand exchange to take place. 2 The process for collecting the product involves the dissolving of the precipitate in the boiling water and adding concentrated hydrochloric acid to the precipitate, the hexamminecobalt(III) chloride. When heating the mixture directly on the hot plate while stirring, helps to dissolve the crystals. The filtrate should be orange, and it contains the dissolved product. 4 CoCl2Â ·6H2O + 4 NH4Cl + 20 NH3 + O2 → 4 [Co(NH3)6]Cl3 + 26 H2O 2 CoCl2Â ·6H2O + Â ½H2O2 + NH4Cl + 5 NH3 → [Co(NH3)6]Cl3 + 7 H2O 3 Acetone was used as the solvent so that impurities are removed from the crystals. When the solution was cooled, crystals of pure product were formed and the impurities remained dissolved in the solution. If the solvent was not cooled, the crystals may dissolve and result in a decrease of the percent yield. The solvent that is chosen has to have low solubility at low temperatures and high solubility at high temperatures. 4 Hexammincobalt(III) chloride is an ionic compound having three chloride ions with a charge of -1 and the cation having a charge of 3+ . Some years ago it was questioned whether the chlorine atoms in hexaamminecobalt(III) chloride were part of the complex or ionic thus they were free. Chlorine in this complex was indeed determined to be ionic. To verify this theory one can complex the cobalt iodometrically and so titrating the liberated iodine with sodium thiosulfate solution.5 The Co3+ is an electron deficient cation and so ammonia is capable of donating an electron pair to the metal ion in a coordinate covalent bond. NH3 is a strong field ligand thus there would be more splitting, ie. it is a low-spin complex. The yield of Hexamminecobalt(III) chloride was 4.787g which is a rather high yield if one is assuming that all of the cobalt(II) chloride hexahydrate turned into the hexamminecobalt(III)chloride. The yield could have been better if there were no losses during the synthesis and also during the recrystallisation process. Hexamminecobalt(III) chloride absorbs light in the violet-blue-green region but reflects the orange wavelengths thus appearing orange. The ground state 5D would split into 5T2g and a 5Eg. 5 The ligand NH3 would have a weak field since it has four unpaired electrons. From the Tanabe sugano diagram one can verify that the ligand NH3 is of intermediate field strength having a Dq/B of 1.8.5 Experiment B: Preparation of Dichlorodipyridinocobalt In the second experiment the octahedral complex of cobalt(II) chloride hexaydrate is going to take a tetrahedral form.6 This complex is found to exist in two forms: a monomer with a formula of [CoCl2(py)2] consisting of a tetrahedral with cobalt 2+ as the central metal ion and the other one is an octahedral polymer [CoCl2(py)2]n.6 Polymerizes on standing CoCl2+ 2py→[CoCl2(py)2] ↔ [CoCl2(py)2]n 6 Blue violet Diagram of structure of dichlorodipyridinocobalt 6 Pyridine has an equatorial lone pair of electrons at the nitrogen atom in the benzene ring 7 and so it is able to donate the lone pairs to the metal ion cobalt(II). Pyridine and chlorine are monodentate ligands since they donate only one lone pair to the metal. When adding the hot absolute ethanol the cobalt(II) chloride would dissolve and pyridine would exchange with water ligands since it is a stronger ligand. Because a tetrahedral complex has fewer ligands and there are no ligands at the axis, the magnitude of the splitting is smaller when compared to the octahedral. Octahedral complexes would have large splitting because of higher repulsion.8 The difference between the energies of the t2g and eg orbitals in a tetrahedral complex is slightly less than half as large as the splitting in octahedral complexes. 8 From the results one can observe that the yield of the dichlorodipyridinocobalt resulted in 0g. This could be the cause of heating the alcohol and pyridine at high temperature thus evaporating some of them and so the synthesis would not occur as desired. The absolute ethanol could have melted the crystals so resulting in low yield of product. One source of error is that normal balances would not detect such low yields. Conclusion One can conclude that the aim of this experiment: To prepare two complexes of cobalt in different metal oxidation state was reached, such that relatively good yields were obtained for the hexamminecobalt(III) complex and dichlorodipyridinocobalt crystals were also obtained by in such a low yield that could not be measured.

Chaos In William Shakespeares King Lear :: essays research papers

A device which Shakespeare often utilized to convey the confusion and chaos within the plot of his plays, is the reflection of that confusion and chaos in the natural environment of the setting, along with supernatural anomalies and animal imageries. In King Lear, these devices are used to communicate the plot, which is summarized by Gloucester as:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   …This villain of mine comes under the prediction: there’s son against father. The King falls from bias of nature: there’s father against child. (Act 1, Sc.1, 115 - 118) The “bias of nature'; is defined as the natural inclination of the world. Throughout the play King Lear, the unnatural inclination of nature, supernatural properties and animal imageries are used by Shakespeare to illustrate the chaotic state of England, which was caused by the treacheries of the evil characters.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Gloucester is a character in the play who firmly believed that man’s fate has supernatural properties that are controlled or reflected by the heaven and stars:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  These late eclipses in the sun and moon   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Portend us to no good. Though the wisdom of   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  nature can reason it thus and thus, yet nature finds   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  itself scourged by the sequent events. (Act 1, Sc. 2, 109 - 113) This is proclaimed by Gloucester as he is told by Edmund of Edgar’s supposedly treacherous plot to remove him from power. Gloucester’s trust in Edgar faltered as a result of Lear’s irrational banishment of Cordelia and Kent, coupled with recent anomalies in the heavens. Gloucester believed that Lear’s actions also came as a result of the star’s unusual behaviour. Edmund, the treacherous and bastard son of Gloucester, exploits Gloucester’s blind believe in the stars in his plot to oust Edgar out of the inheritance and ultimately to gain all of Gloucester’s wealth and land:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  This is the excellent foppery of the world, that when we are sick in fortune (often the surfeits of the sun, the moon, and stars, as if we were villains on necessity; fools by heavenly compulsion; knaves, thieves, and treacherous by spherical predominance; drunkards, liars, and adulterers by an enforced obedience of planetary influence; and all that we are evil in, by a divine thrusting on. (Act 1. Sc. 2, 125 - 133) As a result of the irrational acts of trust by Lear and Gloucester, the state of England crumbled due to corruptness and treachery of Regan, Goneril and Edmund. At the point of ultimate chaos, Lear is disdained by his two evil daughters and has none of the power and honour of his kingship, and the state of nature reflects this chaos in the form of a tumultuous storm:

African Americans and Slavery Essay

The American Revolution was a time of great turmoil for all men and women in the United States. Great debates came and went during this time; slavery and the freedom of black men being the main problems in these debates. Slaves were used for a great number of things during the American revolutionary period. The arrival of slavery to the American colonies began in the 1600s and started out in Virginia. As the years passed more and more African-Americans were brought into the colonies to be used as labor workers. The beginning amount of slaves continued to grow and by the beginning of the revolution there were about 273,000 slaves spread throughout the American states. With the coming of the revolution all African-Americans, slave or free, knew something was coming and each had a different response to these comings. There were differences in the responses of slaves and free men during the American Revolution. There were also consequences to their choices. â€Å"Gaining freedom in a land of captivity and wresting equality from a society whose founding documents guarantee it has been the consuming desire and everlasting hope that has kept harrowed bodies and weary souls going. † In the southern states African-American slaves were treated harsher than those in the north. The plantations down south required back –breaking hours of work in the sun that White Americans believed could only be done by those they had bought. There was a reason for them to be there and until they could no longer work they were to do all things imaginable for their owners, no questions asked. Some of these slaves thought it was easier to run away from their owners and that in doing so they would have a chance to fight for their country. Slaves could either flee to the north or they could flee to Spanish owned Florida. In cases where a master was called upon to fight, they would send a slave in their place and if they lived long enough to return home they earned freedom. Many of the slaves decided that if they had a chance to gain their freedom by joining the war effort then they would gladly take their masters place. They also believed that with the beginning to the revolutionary period would bring a new deed to the land and when it was over there would no longer be a need for slaves. The consequences for slaves in the south were innumerable. Like many slaves, they took this time to run from slave masters and plantations. If these southern slaves were caught, depending on the owner, the slave could suffer mild to severe consequences. Depending on the demeanor of the owner a slave could be punished in several different ways. Whipping, branding, slapping, being dunked underwater, and kicking were just some forms of punishment. The most severe punishments were to cut off a body part like an ear in the hopes that the slave would learn and never run again. There were also â€Å"nice† slave owners that chose not to punish their slaves. There justification for not punishing their slaves was so that they would continue to work and so that the owner could buy more slaves with the money that they continued to pool in from the work. Because of some owners that continuously harassed Washington, he stopped allowing slaves into his army. But General Washington, fearing rebellion, created an order that stated that all blacks were not allowed to fight. Later he partially reversed the order and allowed only free black men to fight with him. Some slaves believed that taking a chance to flee towards the north was a far-fetched idea. They were seeking freedom in the quickest possible way. Lord Dunmore sent out a proclamation that stated in exchange for freedom any black that came to him would fight against the patriots and become a loyalist. Dunmore’s promise of freedom fueled black slaves to escape and even some patriots fled to fight as a loyalist. After the war, true to his word, slaves gained their freedom. Some of these newly freed slaves went to Britain but many of them stayed in the Americas. On the other hand free men in the north believed the revolution would bring about change for the better. Their idea of the revolution was that they were being given the chance to gain independence from Great Britain and also for themselves. It was a defining moment in history that they were to be a part of. Fighting with white men gave these free black men a sense of honor and it also gave them a job where they could earn a little money to put towards getting homes and things of that nature. Men from the north gradually began to realize that they could fight with their brethren and bring independence to the land. General Washington passed an order stating that no black man was allowed into his army. This order came about because of general angst from some slave owners. These owners believed that there should not be any blacks fighting for the independence because they were only good for being slaves and they would never have say over anything. After some time Washington, fearing not having enough men to fight against the British, partially reversed this order to allow only free black men. Other than this there were not many consequences that are recorded for free black men. These free men not only fought for the independence of the nation but also for their independence and the independence of other black men and women. African-Americans from the north and south chose to join the continental army because they believed that they should help make the place the lived independent from a tyranny that had no say in the matters of a new country. They felt that this tyranny could take their rights and place them under unfair rule once again. Some of the freemen and slaves that had started out in the continental army decided to run to the British army but were not successful in their plights. Nash called the revolution the ‘greatest slave rebellion in American history’ because it was just that. The revolution opened up new grounds for slaves to rebel against owners because it was the most opportune time for them to do so. â€Å"If any group within America’s diversified people came close to answering John Adams’s plea that ‘we must all be soldiers,’ it was black Americans. No part of revolutionary society responded to the call for arms with anywhere near the enthusiasm of those who were black. Proportionate to their number, African American males— and some females— were more likely to join the fray than white Americans. † According to this excerpt from another one of Nash’s books, African-Americans were much more adept to answering the plea of John Adams. If there were more African-American fighters than white that meant that more black males were subject to put themselves in danger in order to gain freedom. They would rather have one day of freedom, not knowing if they would die in the next second, hour, or day, than be a slave for the rest of their lives. This is one of the reasons why Nash called the revolution the ‘greatest slave rebellion in American history’. â€Å"Desperate to fill the thinned ranks of its regiments, states offered freedom†¦ to serve during the continuance of the present war with Great Britain. Every black enlistee would be ‘immediately discharged from the service of his master or mistress, and be absolutely free, as if he had never been encumbered with any kind of servitude or slavery. † If states were desperate to have more men come into their ranks then there was nothing really stopping slaves from escaping their masters and coming to fight. They all wanted freedom from someone. Slaves wanted freedom from their bonds that were tied to the soil they worked and the Americans wanted freedom from Great Britain. Both groups had their reasons to fight and the only way slaves knew how to become free was to rebel and run to an army. This was a time for large rebellions on all fronts not just from the slaves. It was a rebellion against the British from the former colonists and a rebellion against the men and women that were taken from their homes to somehow create new ones. â€Å"It may have been, as Nash says ‘the greatest slave rebellion in American history,’ but for most of the rebels it ended like the others, in death. Slaves who supported the American side fared better, but not much better. Only with great reluctance did Washington allow some to join his army. Other Virginians had another wartime use for them. In 1780 the state legislature offered salves as a bounty for enlistment in the war against British tyranny. The revolution did see enactment of measures for gradual emancipation in the northern states, but the number who benefited was small. † My view on the American Revolution has changed somewhat because of how the African-Americans were treated during and after the period of war. The Americans act as though they had not been fighting alongside each other and because of this withhold distaste for the blacks. The completely disregard the idea that every man is created equal and has certain unalienable rights. They do not extend these ideas that were written down on the Declaration of Independence to the free black Americans. Men that had fought with and under Washington were not looked as the same because the color of their skin and were not given the same rights. Because of how they were treated I see the Revolution more as a war against Britain to save other whites from tyranny rather than to gain independence for all mankind. ——————————————–.of Revolution (Harvard University: 2006), 1. [ 2 ]. Taymor, . â€Å"US History Documents. † Last modified 2005. Accessed January 27, 2013. http://inside. sfuhs. org/dept/history/US_History_reader/Chapter2/Nashfighting. pdf. [ 3 ]. Taymor, . â€Å"US History Documents. † Last modified 2005. Accessed January 27, 2013. http://inside. sfuhs. org/dept/history/US_History_reader/Chapter2/Nashfighting. pdf. [ 4 ]. Edmund S. Morgan, review of The Unknown American Revolution:  .

Analysis of Guy Montag Essay Example

Analysis of Guy Montag Essay Example Analysis of Guy Montag Paper Analysis of Guy Montag Paper Essay Topic: Fahrenheit 451 This shows the mindset Montage has. It Demonstrates how he gets Joy out of his Job. In the society he lives In books are Illegal and firemen start the fires rather than put them out. Montage Is such a man and enjoys It greatly. He Is completely happy with demolishing pieces of history and written pieces of art. As he says, it never went away, that smile. It never went away, as long as he remembered. (Bradbury, 2) On a merry walk home from his beloved Job, Montage is nearly UN over on the side walk by a life altering girl. In meeting Claries, the girl, Montages mind starts working in ways it never had before. With Just one question, Are you happy? (Bradbury, 4) she sets way for future events that otherwise would have never happened. Montage starts to doubt whether the way he lives his life is really Joyful. He starts to realize that he laughs when not really amused and answers without thinking about the question or his answer. He doesnt really think much at all. And Montage realizes He is not really happy in the least. This makes him notice the truth about his marriage, as well. Montage and Mildred Montages marriage is very much empty. When he tries to confront her about how she eels about him she avoids or brushes it aside. He comes to the realization that all she really loves is her television, or parlor. Their marriage eventually deteriorates completely as she comes to believe he is crazy because he made her read with him. She runs away but not before calling his own department on him first. Montage comes to the realization that he hates what he Is and the society he lives In. HIS fascination with books continues to grow, but at first he blames the Hand for It. When he would sneak books Into the house he would curse his hand for the action, hulking It had a mind of Its own. He was a confused Individual because all he knew was books were bad and yet all he grew to want was books. He went to see Professor Faber, a man he talked to years before about books, he found out that It was really he who grabbed the books not his hand. He grew to hate his job and society so much that on a call to his own home he ended up killing his boss. And facing his fear of the Mechanical Hound Ana the very people a day before he thought he liked. The change Montage goes through is grand and amazing. Ignorance was bliss and e fought past it and became an intellectual. People tend to destroy things that they deem a threat to them and that is exactly what the government in Fahrenheit 451 did by televising his death and capture. The entirety of this novel is a story about change, from the first page to the last chapter. With change in italics the novel begins with, It was a special pleasure to seething eaten, To see things blackened and changed. (Bradbury, 1) Montage goes from changing things by destroying them to changing society by preserving know Edge which, in turn, changes him.

The Pathetic Mr. Ripley essays

The Pathetic Mr. Ripley essays The paper will deal with the gay image in the movie The Talented Mr. Ripley. The main aim of the paper is to show that the gays in the characterization of Tom Ripley is portrayed as pathetic and tragic in The Talented Mr. Ripley and this portrayal of gays is not limited to Tom Ripley in the movie. I have chosen to explain my point in several different sections which tie with each other. But before writing about the movie, I feel the need of writing about the queer theory, and the problems of representation of homosexuals on screen. The queer theory, is not only used by homosexuals, or gays, or queers but the name invention belongs to this group. Queer is an adjective in English and its meaning is 1. Being out of the usual course of events in minor respects; singular; odd. 2. Of questionable character; open to suspicion; mysterious. 3. Slang Counterfeit. n. Slang. 1 Counterfeit money... according to the Websters Comprehensive Dictionary. The use of queer attracts attention and the not so flattering meaning of the word is actually shown to public and by this the meaning is trying to be reversed. The queer culture is not limited to homosexual men and women. The word queer is now used to express wide range of images, books, films. Alexander Doty writes that: Certain feminist critics and theorists have also begun using the term queer to describe any non-normative expressions of gender by or about straight women (and, sometimes straight men) in film and popular culture production and representation. The queer theory is a live ground and it produces exiting results. Among the writers in this movement, the most appropriate one to our subject matter is Richard Dyer. Dyer has written many books and articles on gay representation. Some of his articles on gay representation is collected in The Matter of Images: Essays on Representations. From the twelv...

Chapter Questions From Global health 101 richard skolnik book Essay - 4

Chapter Questions From Global health 101 richard skolnik book - Essay Example Lack of accurate data also caused the disease to be prevalent over a long time. The lack of political influence was also another cause (Skolnik 65). Intellectual property law affects health care negatively; intellectual property law hinders provision of affordable health care due to high pricing of medicine. The laws also discourage development of generic medication, which should be cheaper than the original (Skolnik 75). The most important issues that may arise when research is conducted in developing countries include the standards of care, after trial benefits for the individuals and community and the care given to the participants after the study not related to the study (Skolnik 80). Scare resources allocated to health care can be justified using one or more principles. One of the principles is health maximization, equality, prioritizing the most affected and personal responsibility. These principles can be combined or used individually to justify resource allocation (Skolnik

Policing and Crime Reduction Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Policing and Crime Reduction - Essay Example It became necessary for the police force to use criminal intelligence the crime analysts to find out the criminals and all information about them to solve the problem. Both the models have got its own distinctive features and the present essay is intended to analyse these features in an effort to see whether both the models are compatible with each other. There was wide spread criticism of the way of policing adopted through 1970's to 1980. During this period policing was more concentrated on crimes and paid little attention to the problems that created a situation for such cases. Their activities were mainly divided into two. Preventive patrol and patrol in response to emergency calls. These activities could not bring crime control. Police was using random patrol, follow up of criminal investigations and sudden actions as the basis of their investigation. It was found that such a system was less efficient because there were many community problems, which did not have a criminal background and arrests and prosecutions did not solve most of the problems. The number of arrests did not increase as the crime increased, mainly because of the lack of infrastructure to keep and prosecute these people. Moreover, it was felt that most of the community problems without a criminal nature could be solved without any arrest through mere police in volvement to address those problems. According to Goldstein, the police were more concentrated on their own internal politics and management and they were little concerned about their actual duties (Goldstein, 1979). He initiated a change in the usual policing by urging them to concentrate on the problems that lead to most of the crimes and to solve these problems so as to take out crime from its roots. He called it problem-oriented policing and this drive was internationally accepted and has been very effective in crime control (Weisburd et. al., 2007). Problem oriented policing involves analysis of similar incidents by the crime analysts as well as experienced police officials in a effort to understand something new from these problems so as to device strategy to deal with those problems (Weisburd et. al., 2007). The system has a preventive nature, which incorporates the use of public and private agencies and community for crime reduction or its prevention. Once a strategy is developed it would be implemented and evaluated and this would be reported so that it would form the basis for developing a pool of knowledge that would help police in their profession (Goldstein, 2001). So there would not be any secrecy in dealing with each and every case. The problems would be openly discussed and the strategy developed would be published in the community. Cooperation of community and other government agencies were sought to implement strategies and to solve the problems so as to reduce incidents of crimes. Based on this idea Eck And Spelman (1987) developed SARA model of problem oriented policing. SARA denoted four steps in its operation namely, Scanning, Analysis, Response and Assessment. Scanning in the process in which police identify problems in their area that are leading to crimes. The next step "Analysis" involves, analysis of these problems so